Since 1989, a company called AquaBounty technologies has been developing a genetically modified salmon (also known as GM or GMO salmon) to sell commercially to the American public. After years of debate and review, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) made AquaBounty’s AquAdvantage salmon the first ever genetically modified animal approved for commercial consumption. But at the end of 2024, the years-long experiment in GMO salmon came to a close, with AquaBounty finally shuttering its last facility in Prince Edward Island, Canada, in December.
What Happened to AquaBounty?
AquaBounty’s AquAdvantage salmon was genetically engineered to grow year-round and more quickly than non-GMO salmon. Despite FDA approval, it had long proven controversial, with three-quarters of Americans polled in 2013 saying they would not eat GMO fish2.
In 2022, a whistleblower report titled AquaBounty Exposed outlined evidence of food and worker safety violations, animal welfare concerns, and routine environmental and water contamination infractions, which may have sealed the company’s fate3.
“This company was propped up by the hype but had nothing of value to sell,” says Lucy Sharratt, Coordinator of the Canadian Biotechnology Action Network4. “Genetically engineered food is a losing investment.”
The Promise of GMO Salmon
So if GMO salmon is surrounded by skepticism and controversy, why was it an experiment in the first place? Were there any potential benefits of genetically modifying this fish?
Well, while people took issue with its methods, AquaBounty’s mission was to bring salmon to market more quickly and cheaply without further endangering the world’s wild salmon population. Polls show that salmon is the second most popular fish in the U.S.5, and according to the World Wildlife Fund, salmon consumption worldwide is three times higher than it was in 19806.
The popularity of salmon is due as much to its nutritional profile as to its flavor. Luxurious and versatile, salmon is equally delicious served raw in sushi, smoked and draped over a bagel, or in a sheet pan dinner featuring roasted salmon with veggies and tahini sauce. The health benefits of salmon range from improved brain health from its wealth of omega-3s to the skin-boosting power of astaxanthin, which also gives salmon its pretty pink color.
Despite its popularity, salmon is far from the most sustainable seafood. Salmon farming has historically been problematic from an environmental and ethical standpoint, particularly with regards to their effects on wild salmon stocks. On the other hand, overfishing of wild salmon contributes to dwindling populations.
As you can probably tell, navigating these concerns as responsible consumers can be nearly impossible. Luckily, advances in the past decade mean it’s time to revisit our framing of sustainable salmon. Here’s what discerning shoppers need to know about non-GMO salmon options — whether they’re debating farm-raised salmon vs. wild salmon, or just trying to understand salmon production better overall.
Why We Shouldn’t Demonize Farmed Salmon
For years, eco-minded consumers avoided farmed salmon like the plague. Salmon is typically farmed in open-net systems, which see the fish crammed into small nets suspended in the ocean. Not only did this give rise to ethical concerns for both the fish and workers, but chemical inputs like antibiotics ran rampant, barely serving to curb the widespread disease. Both contaminants and escapees could easily evade the farms, contributing to unintended effects on wild populations.
Earlier this year, a paper in Reviews in Aquaculture exploring the interactions between farmed Atlantic salmon and wild Atlantic cod populations in Norway showed that among other factors, waste feed from the farms attracted dense populations of cod and thus predators, including fishermen with a penchant for overfishing7.
Nevertheless, according to the World Wildlife Fund, salmon aquaculture remains the fastest growing food production system in the world. Improvements have indeed been made over the past decade, says Merrielle Macleod, WWF’s Director of Aquaculture. She cites the advent of closed, indoor systems like land-based tanks as one major development reducing the spread of disease, water pollution, and interaction with wild populations. “These systems offer the potential for more controlled environments, lessening the need for antibiotics and pesticides,” she says.
That said, the industry still has a ways to go if it is to achieve peak sustainability. “The reliance on wild-caught fish for feed raises concerns over the depletion of forage fish stocks and the broader ecological consequences of this practice,” says Macleod. “And in some places, terrestrial feed ingredients for salmon feed, such as soy and palm, can come from deforested or converted lands.”
Finding Sustainably Farmed Salmon
Choosing sustainable salmon farms does require a bit of research, but certifications from organizations like the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) can help.
“Farmed salmon that is raised in closed, recirculating systems will, by its nature, have reduced impacts on local waterways and other species,” explains Macleod.
Types of Salmon to Look For
Generally speaking, farmed Chinook salmon from New Zealand is produced in facilities that rely on indoor recirculating tanks with wastewater treatment, reducing the likelihood of high chemical use and eradicating the problem of contaminating wild populations8.
The same is true of some Atlantic salmon farmed in Maine or the Faroe Islands8. New York State’s LocalCoho farms coho salmon in the same way. These techniques are currently fairly locally focused, but experts tell the New York Times that fish raised in this way is likely to become a “significant” part of America’s salmon supply in the next two decades9.
Ultimately, Macleod reminds us to do our research when purchasing farmed salmon. “It’s important to verify the farm’s practices, such as using responsible feed sources and avoiding antibiotics,” she says. “Transparency from companies regarding their production practices can help guide informed decisions.”
Wild Salmon Is Far from a Perfect Choice
When it comes to farmed vs. wild salmon, it’s not just about the differences in sustainability or ethics. Wild salmon and farmed salmon also have notably different nutritional profiles, with wild salmon containing far less saturated fat and far more calcium than farmed10. On the other hand, farmed salmon contains higher levels of fatty acids, with a higher proportion of omega-6 as compared to heart-healthy omega-3. Wild salmon also boasts a firmer texture and deeper color than its farmed counterpart.
Taking into account the environmental and ethical issues linked to farmed salmon, wild salmon may seem like a no-brainer. But wild salmon isn’t necessarily the best choice either.
Some wild salmon populations, particularly on the west coast of the United States, are listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. This is an issue linked as much to overfishing and bycatch (the unintentional capture of non-targeted fish while fishing other species) as it is to water pollution and climate change, according to the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC).
“Several stocks of Chinook and coho salmon in the Pacific are endangered or threatened, while wild Atlantic salmon is critically endangered in many areas,” explains Alison Cross, Director of Fishery Sustainability at the World Wildlife Fund.
Finding Sustainably Sourced Wild Salmon
The most sustainable stock of wild salmon is the pink or humpback salmon, with its light color and mild flavor. One limiting factor is that pink salmon is typically sold canned — which is perfect for a salmon burger, but not so much for sushi.
When seeking out fresh salmon, Cross says that “consumers should prioritize wild-caught salmon from fisheries that are certified by the MSC, which reflects that they have met or are working toward meeting requirements for responsible fishing practices and fishery management.”
Sustainable wild-caught salmon, she says, must be managed with methods that prevent overfishing, minimize adverse impacts on other species and habitats, and consider Indigenous voices. “This includes incorporating the best available data on climate change impacts (such as impacts on the productivity or distribution of wild salmon stocks) and having management systems that can adapt to observed changes quickly,” she says.
For some, when these efforts are given enough attention, wild salmon populations have a chance — not just at bouncing back, but flourishing.
“We know that if we breach the dams, the salmon come back en mass (sic),” said Estefania Narvaez, organizer with Block Corporate Salmon. “Breach the dams, restore salmon habitat, regulate factory trawlers, decenter industrial aquaculture from policy, build local infrastructure so fishers can distribute their fish more widely, invest in fishing communities! Those are real policy solutions.”
When in doubt, Cross says, seek out Alaskan fisheries, which, despite some lingering issues, are nevertheless “some of the best-managed fisheries in the world.”
Seek Verified Responsible Practices and Broaden Your Diet
Ultimately, Macleod and Cross agree that from a sustainability perspective, “it is less important to consider the differences between wild or farmed salmon than to consider the verified responsible practices that went into either.” Choosing sustainable, ethical salmon, whether wild or farmed, can be an eco-friendly practice, particularly when it’s treated like a luxury.
Being aware of how your fish is sourced is already a big step in the right direction. To continue pushing for sustainable salmon, the experts suggest seeking ethical sources but also diversifying. Rather than going for salmon on the regular, incorporate other salmonids like trout or char. These freshwater fish boast a similar flavor profile to salmon, and the Monterey Bay Aquarium classifies them as sustainable salmon alternatives11. Alongside other fatty fish like mackerel, sardines, or anchovies, these options will be welcome additions to a responsible and varied diet.
Sources:
- https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/aquadvantage-salmon/aquadvantage-salmon-fact-sheet
- https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/28/science/strong-support-for-labeling-modified-foods.html?_r=0
- https://zwly9k6z.r.us-east-1.awstrack.me/L0/https:%2F%2Fdocs.google.com%2Fdocument%2Fd%2F1FysnUssU4IvPQljNl3nWnWEVkN4Yj1CYQgu3f9YXIAo%2Fedit%3Fusp=sharing/1/01000193bb93b389-886b77ef-86d9-4fe3-8b65-339ce7623b3e-000000/gNjDHNorti2ThMhHSGez8oOcpHw=404
- https://foe.org/news/aquabounty-ge-salmon-ends/
- https://www.oceanbox.com/most-popular-seafood-americas-top-10/?srsltid=AfmBOoqDkx7gLF4l_fy4WKYH-HNKKOhMBRxPTKqn4FH61FIGPksDD26e
- https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/farmed-salmon
- https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/raq.12899
- https://www.seafoodwatch.org/recommendation/salmon/atlantic-salmon-29934?species=302
- https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/16/dining/farm-raised-salmon-sustainability.html
- https://health.clevelandclinic.org/fish-faceoff-wild-salmon-vs-farmed-salmon
- https://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-basics/sustainable-healthy-fish/arctic-char
